Mercury (planet)

Mercury is the smallest planet in the Solar System and

the closest to the Sun. Its orbit around the Sun takes Mercury
87.97 Earth days, the shortest of all the Sun's planets. It is
named after the Roman god Mercurius (Mercury), god of
commerce, messenger of the gods, and mediator between
gods and mortals, corresponding to the Greek god
Hermes (Ἑρµῆς). Like Venus, Mercury orbits the Sun
within Earth's orbit as an inferior planet, and its apparent
distance from the Sun as viewed from Earth never
exceeds 28°. This proximity to the Sun means the planet
can only be seen near the western horizon after sunset or
the eastern horizon before sunrise, usually in twilight. At
this time, it may appear as a bright star-like object, but is
more difficult to observe than Venus. From Earth, the
planet telescopically displays the complete range of
phases, similar to Venus and the Moon, which recurs over Mercury in true color (by MESSENGER
its synodic period of approximately 116 days. in 2008)
Designations
Mercury rotates in a way that is unique in the Solar
System. It is tidally locked with the Sun in a 3:2 spin– Pronunciation /ˈmɜːrkjʊri/ ( listen)

orbit resonance,[17] meaning that relative to the fixed Adjectives Mercurian

stars, it rotates on its axis exactly three times for every /mərˈkjʊəriən/,[1]
two revolutions it makes around the Sun.[a][18] As seen Mercurial
from the Sun, in a frame of reference that rotates with the /mərˈkjʊəriəl/[2]
orbital motion, it appears to rotate only once every two
Orbital characteristics[5]
Mercurian years. An observer on Mercury would
therefore see only one day every two Mercurian years. Epoch J2000
Aphelion 0.466 697 AU
Mercury's axis has the smallest tilt of any of the Solar
System's planets (about 1⁄30 degree). Its orbital 69,816,900 km
eccentricity is the largest of all known planets in the Solar Perihelion 0.307 499 AU
System;[b] at perihelion, Mercury's distance from the Sun
is only about two-thirds (or 66%) of its distance at 46,001,200 km
aphelion. Mercury's surface appears heavily cratered and Semi-major axis 0.387 098 AU
is similar in appearance to the Moon's, indicating that it
57,909,050 km
has been geologically inactive for billions of years. Having
almost no atmosphere to retain heat, it has surface Eccentricity 0.205 630[3]
temperatures that vary diurnally more than on any other
Orbital period 87.9691 d
planet in the Solar System, ranging from 100 K (−173 °C;
−280 °F) at night to 700 K (427 °C; 800 °F) during the 0.240 846 yr
0.5 Mercury synodic
:
 day across the equatorial regions.[19] The polar regions day
are constantly below 180 K (−93 °C; −136 °F). The planet Synodic period 115.88 d[3]
has no known natural satellites.
Average orbital 47.36 km/s[3]
Two spacecraft have visited Mercury: Mariner 10 flew by speed
in 1974 and 1975; and MESSENGER, launched in 2004, Mean anomaly 174.796°
orbited Mercury over 4,000 times in four years before Inclination 7.005° to ecliptic
exhausting its fuel and crashing into the planet's surface
on April 30, 2015.[20][21][22] The BepiColombo spacecraft 3.38° to Sun's equator
is planned to arrive at Mercury in 2025. 6.35° to invariable
plane[4]
Longitude of 48.331°
Contents ascending node
Argument of 29.124°
Name and symbol perihelion
Physical characteristics Satellites None
Internal structure Physical characteristics
Surface geology Mean diameter 4880 km
Impact basins and craters
Mean radius 2,439.7 ± 1.0 km[6][7]
Plains
0.3829 Earths
Compressional features
Flattening 0.0000[3]
Volcanism
Surface conditions and exosphere Surface area 7.48 × 107 km2[6]

Magnetic field and magnetosphere 0.147 Earths

Orbit, rotation, and longitude Volume 6.083 × 1010 km3[6]

Longitude convention 0.056 Earths
Spin-orbit resonance Mass 3.3011 × 1023 kg[8]
Advance of perihelion 0.055 Earths
Habitability Mean density 5.427 g/cm3[6]
Observation Surface gravity 3.7 m/s2
Observation history 0.38 g[6]
Ancient astronomers Moment of 0.346 ± 0.014[9]
Ground-based telescopic research inertia factor
Research with space probes Escape velocity 4.25 km/s[6]
Mariner 10 Rotation period 176 d (synodic; solar
MESSENGER day)[10]
BepiColombo Sidereal 58.646 d
rotation period
Comparison 1 407.5 h[6]
:
 See also Equatorial 10.892 km/h
rotation velocity (3.026 m/s)
Notes
Axial tilt 2.04′ ± 0.08′ (to
References
orbit)[9]
External links (0.034°)[3]
North pole 18h 44m 2s
right ascension
Name and symbol 281.01°[3]
North pole 61.45°[3]
The ancients knew Mercury by different names declination
depending on whether it was an evening star or a Albedo 0.088 (Bond)[11]
morning star. By about 350 BC, the ancient Greeks had
0.142 (geom.)[12]
realized the two stars were one.[23] They knew the planet
as Στίλβων Stilbōn, meaning "twinkling", and Ἑρµής Surface temp. min mean max
Hermēs, for its fleeting motion,[24] a name that is 0°N, 0°W [13] -173 °C 67 °C 427 °C
retained in modern Greek (Ερµής Ermis).[25] The 85°N, 0°W[13] -193 °C -73 °C 106.85 °C
Romans named the planet after the swift-footed Roman Apparent −2.48 to +7.25[14]
messenger god, Mercury (Latin Mercurius), which they magnitude
equated with the Greek Hermes, because it moves across Angular 4.5–13″[3]
the sky faster than any other planet.[23][26] The diameter
astronomical symbol for Mercury is a stylized version of Atmosphere[3][15][16]
Hermes' caduceus.[27][28]
Surface trace (≲ 0.5 nPa)
pressure
Physical characteristics Composition by atomic oxygen
volume sodium
Mercury is one of four terrestrial planets in the Solar
System, and is a rocky body like Earth. It is the smallest magnesium
planet in the Solar System, with an equatorial radius of atomic hydrogen
2,439.7 kilometres (1,516.0 mi).[3] Mercury is also smaller potassium
—albeit more massive—than the largest natural satellites
calcium
in the Solar System, Ganymede and Titan. Mercury
consists of approximately 70% metallic and 30% silicate helium
material.[29] Trace amounts of
iron, aluminium,
argon, dinitrogen,
Internal structure
dioxygen, carbon
Mercury appears to have a solid silicate crust and mantle dioxide, water vapor,
overlying a solid, iron sulfide outer core layer, a deeper xenon, krypton, and
liquid core layer, and a solid inner core.[30][31] The neon
planet's density is the second highest in the Solar System
at 5.427 g/cm3, only slightly less than Earth's density of
5.515 g/cm3.[3] If the effect of gravitational compression were to be factored out from both
planets, the materials of which Mercury is made would be denser than those of Earth, with an
:
 uncompressed density of 5.3 g/cm3 versus Earth's 4.4 g/cm3.[32] Mercury's density can be used to
infer details of its inner structure. Although Earth's high density results appreciably from
gravitational compression, particularly at the core, Mercury is much smaller and its inner regions
are not as compressed. Therefore, for it to have such a high density, its core must be large and rich
in iron.[33]

Geologists estimate that Mercury's core occupies about 55% of its volume; for Earth this
proportion is 17%. Research published in 2007 suggests that Mercury has a molten core.[34][35]
Surrounding the core is a 500–700 km
(310–430 mi) mantle consisting of
silicates.[36][37] Based on data from the
Mariner 10 mission and Earth-based
observation, Mercury's crust is estimated
to be 35 km (22 mi) thick.[38] However,
this model may be an overestimate and the
crust could be 26 ± 11 km (16.2 ± 6.8 mi)
thick based on an Airy isostacy model.[39]
One distinctive feature of Mercury's surface
is the presence of numerous narrow ridges,
extending up to several hundred kilometers
in length. It is thought that these were
formed as Mercury's core and mantle
Mercury's internal structure and magnetic field cooled and contracted at a time when the
crust had already solidified.[40][41][42]

Mercury's core has a higher iron content than that of any other major planet in the Solar System,
and several theories have been proposed to explain this. The most widely accepted theory is that
Mercury originally had a metal–silicate ratio similar to common chondrite meteorites, thought to
be typical of the Solar System's rocky matter, and a mass approximately 2.25 times its current
mass.[43] Early in the Solar System's history, Mercury may have been struck by a planetesimal of
approximately 1/6 that mass and several thousand kilometers across.[43] The impact would have
stripped away much of the original crust and mantle, leaving the core behind as a relatively major
component.[43] A similar process, known as the giant impact hypothesis, has been proposed to
explain the formation of the Moon.[43]

Alternatively, Mercury may have formed from the solar nebula before the Sun's energy output had
stabilized. It would initially have had twice its present mass, but as the protosun contracted,
temperatures near Mercury could have been between 2,500 and 3,500 K and possibly even as
high as 10,000 K.[44] Much of Mercury's surface rock could have been vaporized at such
temperatures, forming an atmosphere of "rock vapor" that could have been carried away by the
solar wind.[44]

A third hypothesis proposes that the solar nebula caused drag on the particles from which
Mercury was accreting, which meant that lighter particles were lost from the accreting material
and not gathered by Mercury.[45] Each hypothesis predicts a different surface composition, and
there are two space missions set to make observations. MESSENGER, which ended in 2015, found
:
 higher-than-expected potassium and sulfur levels on the surface, suggesting that the giant impact
hypothesis and vaporization of the crust and mantle did not occur because potassium and sulfur
would have been driven off by the extreme heat of these events.[46] BepiColombo, which will
arrive at Mercury in 2025, will make observations to test these hypotheses.[47] The findings so far
would seem to favor the third hypothesis; however, further analysis of the data is needed.[48]

Surface geology

Mercury's surface is similar in appearance to that of the Moon, showing extensive mare-like
plains and heavy cratering, indicating that it has been geologically inactive for billions of years. It
is more heterogeneous than either Mars's or the Moon's, both of which contain significant
stretches of similar geology, such as maria and plateaus.[49] Albedo features are areas of markedly
different reflectivity, which include impact craters, the resulting ejecta, and ray systems. Larger
albedo features correspond to higher reflectivity plains.[50] Mercury has dorsa (also called
"wrinkle-ridges"), Moon-like highlands, montes (mountains), planitiae (plains), rupes
(escarpments), and valles (valleys).[51][52]

The planet's mantle is chemically heterogeneous, suggesting

the planet went through a magma ocean phase early in its
history. Crystallization of minerals and convective overturn
resulted in layered, chemically heterogeneous crust with
large-scale variations in chemical composition observed on
the surface. The crust is low in iron but high in sulfur,
resulting from the stronger early chemically reducing
conditions than is found in the other terrestrial planets. The
surface is dominated by iron-poor pyroxene and olivine, as
represented by enstatite and forsterite, respectively, along
with sodium-rich plagioclase and minerals of mixed
magnesium, calcium, and iron-sulfide. The less reflective
MASCS spectrum scan of
regions of the crust are high in carbon, most likely in the form
Mercury's surface by of graphite.[53]
MESSENGER
Names for features on Mercury come from a variety of
sources. Names coming from people are limited to the
deceased. Craters are named for artists, musicians, painters, and authors who have made
outstanding or fundamental contributions to their field. Ridges, or dorsa, are named for scientists
who have contributed to the study of Mercury. Depressions or fossae are named for works of
architecture. Montes are named for the word "hot" in a variety of languages. Plains or planitiae
are named for Mercury in various languages. Escarpments or rupēs are named for ships of
scientific expeditions. Valleys or valles are named for abandoned cities, towns, or settlements of
antiquity.[54]

Impact basins and craters

:
 Mercury was heavily bombarded by comets and asteroids during and shortly following its
formation 4.6 billion years ago, as well as during a possibly
separate subsequent episode called the Late Heavy
Bombardment that ended 3.8 billion years ago.[55] Mercury
received impacts over its entire surface during this period of
intense crater formation,[52] facilitated by the lack of any
atmosphere to slow impactors down.[56] During this time
Mercury was volcanically active; basins were filled by magma,
producing smooth plains similar to the maria found on the
Enhanced-color image of Munch,
Moon.[57][58] An unusual crater with radiating troughs has
Sander and Poe craters amid
volcanic plains (orange) near been discovered that scientists called "the spider".[59] It was
Caloris Basin later named Apollodorus.[60]

Craters on Mercury range in diameter from small bowl-

shaped cavities to multi-ringed impact basins hundreds of kilometers across. They appear in all
states of degradation, from relatively fresh rayed craters to highly degraded crater remnants.
Mercurian craters differ subtly from lunar craters in that the area blanketed by their ejecta is
much smaller, a consequence of Mercury's stronger surface gravity.[61] According to International
Astronomical Union (IAU) rules, each new crater must be named after an artist who was famous
for more than fifty years, and dead for more than three years, before the date the crater is
named.[62]

The largest known crater is Caloris

Planitia, or Caloris Basin, with a
diameter of 1,550 km.[63] The impact
that created the Caloris Basin was so
powerful that it caused lava eruptions
and left a concentric mountainous
ring ~2 km tall surrounding the
impact crater. The floor of the Caloris
Basin is filled by a geologically
Overhead view of Perspective view of Caloris Basin –
distinct flat plain, broken up by
Caloris Basin high (red); low (blue)
ridges and fractures in a roughly
polygonal pattern. It is not clear
whether they are volcanic lava flows
induced by the impact or a large sheet of impact melt.[61]

At the antipode of the Caloris Basin is a large region of unusual, hilly terrain known as the "Weird
Terrain". One hypothesis for its origin is that shock waves generated during the Caloris impact
traveled around Mercury, converging at the basin's antipode (180 degrees away). The resulting
high stresses fractured the surface.[64] Alternatively, it has been suggested that this terrain
formed as a result of the convergence of ejecta at this basin's antipode.[65]

Overall, 46 impact basins have been identified.[66] A notable basin is the 400 km wide, multi-ring
Tolstoj Basin that has an ejecta blanket extending up to 500 km from its rim and a floor that has
been filled by smooth plains materials. Beethoven Basin has a similar-sized ejecta blanket and a
:
 625 km diameter rim.[61] Like the Moon, the surface of Mercury has likely incurred the effects of
space weathering processes, including solar wind and micrometeorite impacts.[67]

Plains

There are two geologically distinct plains regions on

Mercury.[61][68] Gently rolling, hilly plains in the regions
between craters are Mercury's oldest visible surfaces,[61]
predating the heavily cratered terrain. These inter-crater
plains appear to have obliterated many earlier craters, and
show a general paucity of smaller craters below about 30 km
in diameter.[68]

Smooth plains are widespread flat areas that fill depressions

of various sizes and bear a strong resemblance to the lunar Tolstoj basin is along the bottom of
maria. Unlike lunar maria, the smooth plains of Mercury have this image of Mercury's limb
the same albedo as the older inter-crater plains. Despite a
lack of unequivocally volcanic characteristics, the localisation
and rounded, lobate shape of these plains strongly support volcanic origins.[61] All the smooth
plains of Mercury formed significantly later than the Caloris basin, as evidenced by appreciably
smaller crater densities than on the Caloris ejecta blanket.[61]

Compressional features

One unusual feature of Mercury's surface is the numerous compression folds, or rupes, that
crisscross the plains. As Mercury's interior cooled, it contracted and its surface began to deform,
creating wrinkle ridges and lobate scarps associated with thrust faults. The scarps can reach
lengths of 1000 km and heights of 3 km.[69] These compressional features can be seen on top of
other features, such as craters and smooth plains, indicating they are more recent.[70] Mapping of
the features has suggested a total shrinkage of Mercury's radius in the range of ~1 to 7 km.[71]
Most activity along the major thrust systems probably ended about 3.6–3.7 billion years ago.[72]
Small-scale thrust fault scarps have been found, tens of meters in height and with lengths in the
range of a few km, that appear to be less than 50 million years old, indicating that compression of
the interior and consequent surface geological activity continue to the present.[69][71]

The Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter discovered that similar but smaller thrust faults exist on the
Moon.[73]

Volcanism

There is evidence for pyroclastic flows on Mercury from low-profile shield volcanoes.[74][75][76] 51
pyroclastic deposits have been identified,[77] where 90% of them are found within impact
craters.[77] A study of the degradation state of the impact craters that host pyroclastic deposits
:
 suggests that pyroclastic activity occurred on Mercury over a prolonged interval.[77]

A "rimless depression" inside the southwest rim of the Caloris Basin consists of at least nine
overlapping volcanic vents, each individually up to 8 km in diameter. It is thus a "compound
volcano".[78] The vent floors are at least 1 km below their
brinks and they bear a closer resemblance to volcanic craters
sculpted by explosive eruptions or modified by collapse into
void spaces created by magma withdrawal back down into a
conduit.[78] Scientists could not quantify the age of the
volcanic complex system but reported that it could be of the
order of a billion years.[78]

Surface conditions and exosphere

The surface temperature of Mercury ranges from 100 to
700 K (−173 to 427 °C; −280 to 800 °F)[19] at the most
extreme places: 0°N, 0°W, or 180°W. It never rises above Picasso crater — the large arc-
180 K at the poles,[13] due to the absence of an atmosphere shaped pit located on the eastern
side of its floor are postulated to
and a steep temperature gradient between the equator and
have formed when subsurface
the poles. The subsolar point reaches about 700 K during
magma subsided or drained,
perihelion (0°W or 180°W), but only 550 K at aphelion (90°
causing the surface to collapse
or 270°W).[80] On the dark side of the planet, temperatures into the resulting void.
average 110 K.[13][81] The intensity of sunlight on Mercury's
surface ranges between 4.59 and 10.61 times the solar
constant (1,370 W·m−2).[82]

Although the daylight temperature at the surface of Mercury

is generally extremely high, observations strongly suggest
that ice (frozen water) exists on Mercury. The floors of deep
craters at the poles are never exposed to direct sunlight, and
temperatures there remain below 102 K, far lower than the
Composite of the north pole of
global average.[83] This creates a cold trap where ice can Mercury, where NASA confirmed
accumulate. Water ice strongly reflects radar, and the discovery of a large volume of
observations by the 70-meter Goldstone Solar System Radar water ice, in permanently dark
and the VLA in the early 1990s revealed that there are patches craters that are found there.[79]
of high radar reflection near the poles.[84] Although ice was
not the only possible cause of these reflective regions,
astronomers think it was the most likely.[85]

The icy regions are estimated to contain about 1014–1015 kg of ice,[86] and may be covered by a
layer of regolith that inhibits sublimation.[87] By comparison, the Antarctic ice sheet on Earth has
a mass of about 4 × 1018 kg, and Mars's south polar cap contains about 1016 kg of water.[86] The
origin of the ice on Mercury is not yet known, but the two most likely sources are from outgassing
of water from the planet's interior or deposition by impacts of comets.[86]
:
 Mercury is too small and hot for its gravity to retain any significant atmosphere over long periods
of time; it does have a tenuous surface-bounded exosphere[88] containing hydrogen, helium,
oxygen, sodium, calcium, potassium and others[15][16] at a surface pressure of less than
approximately 0.5 nPa (0.005 picobars).[3] This exosphere is not stable—atoms are continuously
lost and replenished from a variety of sources. Hydrogen atoms and helium atoms probably come
from the solar wind, diffusing into Mercury's magnetosphere before later escaping back into
space. Radioactive decay of elements within Mercury's crust is another source of helium, as well
as sodium and potassium. MESSENGER found high proportions of calcium, helium, hydroxide,
magnesium, oxygen, potassium, silicon and sodium. Water vapor is present, released by a
combination of processes such as: comets striking its surface, sputtering creating water out of
hydrogen from the solar wind and oxygen from rock, and sublimation from reservoirs of water ice
in the permanently shadowed polar craters. The detection of high amounts of water-related ions
like O+, OH−, and H3O+ was a surprise.[89][90] Because of the quantities of these ions that were
detected in Mercury's space environment, scientists surmise that these molecules were blasted
from the surface or exosphere by the solar wind.[91][92]

Sodium, potassium and calcium were discovered in the atmosphere during the 1980–1990s, and
are thought to result primarily from the vaporization of surface rock struck by micrometeorite
impacts[93] including presently from Comet Encke.[94] In 2008, magnesium was discovered by
MESSENGER.[95] Studies indicate that, at times, sodium emissions are localized at points that
correspond to the planet's magnetic poles. This would indicate an interaction between the
magnetosphere and the planet's surface.[96]

On November 29, 2012, NASA confirmed that images from MESSENGER had detected that
craters at the north pole contained water ice. MESSENGER's principal investigator Sean Solomon
is quoted in The New York Times estimating the volume of the ice to be large enough to "encase
Washington, D.C., in a frozen block two and a half miles deep".[79]

Magnetic field and magnetosphere

Despite its small size and slow 59-day-long rotation, Mercury

has a significant, and apparently global, magnetic field.
According to measurements taken by Mariner 10, it is about
1.1% the strength of Earth's. The magnetic-field strength at
Mercury's equator is about 300 nT.[97][98] Like that of Earth,
Mercury's magnetic field is dipolar.[96] Unlike Earth's,
Mercury's poles are nearly aligned with the planet's spin
axis.[99] Measurements from both the Mariner 10 and
MESSENGER space probes have indicated that the strength Graph showing relative strength of
and shape of the magnetic field are stable.[99] Mercury's magnetic field

It is likely that this magnetic field is generated by a dynamo

effect, in a manner similar to the magnetic field of Earth.[100][101] This dynamo effect would result
from the circulation of the planet's iron-rich liquid core. Particularly strong tidal heating effects
:
 caused by the planet's high orbital eccentricity would serve to keep part of the core in the liquid
state necessary for this dynamo effect.[36][102]

Mercury's magnetic field is strong enough to deflect the solar wind around the planet, creating a
magnetosphere. The planet's magnetosphere, though small enough to fit within Earth,[96] is
strong enough to trap solar wind plasma. This contributes to the space weathering of the planet's
surface.[99] Observations taken by the Mariner 10 spacecraft detected this low energy plasma in
the magnetosphere of the planet's nightside. Bursts of energetic particles in the planet's
magnetotail indicate a dynamic quality to the planet's magnetosphere.[96]

During its second flyby of the planet on October 6, 2008, MESSENGER discovered that Mercury's
magnetic field can be extremely "leaky". The spacecraft encountered magnetic "tornadoes" –
twisted bundles of magnetic fields connecting the planetary magnetic field to interplanetary space
– that were up to 800 km wide or a third of the radius of the planet. These twisted magnetic flux
tubes, technically known as flux transfer events, form open windows in the planet's magnetic
shield through which the solar wind may enter and directly impact Mercury's surface via magnetic
reconnection[103] This also occurs in Earth's magnetic field. The MESSENGER observations
showed the reconnection rate is ten times higher at Mercury, but its proximity to the Sun only
accounts for about a third of the reconnection rate observed by MESSENGER.[103]

Orbit, rotation, and longitude

Mercury has the most eccentric orbit
of all the planets in the Solar System;
its eccentricity is 0.21 with its
distance from the Sun ranging from
46,000,000 to 70,000,000 km
(29,000,000 to 43,000,000 mi). It
takes 87.969 Earth days to complete
an orbit. The diagram illustrates the
effects of the eccentricity, showing
Mercury's orbit overlaid with a
circular orbit having the same semi- Orbit of Mercury (2006) Animation of Mercury's and
major axis. Mercury's higher velocity Earth's revolution around the
when it is near perihelion is clear Sun
from the greater distance it covers in
each 5-day interval. In the diagram,
the varying distance of Mercury to the Sun is represented by the size of the planet, which is
inversely proportional to Mercury's distance from the Sun. This varying distance to the Sun leads
to Mercury's surface being flexed by tidal bulges raised by the Sun that are about 17 times stronger
than the Moon's on Earth.[104] Combined with a 3:2 spin–orbit resonance of the planet's rotation
around its axis, it also results in complex variations of the surface temperature.[29] The resonance
makes a single solar day (the length between two meridian transits of the Sun) on Mercury last
exactly two Mercury years, or about 176 Earth days.[105]
:
 Mercury's orbit is inclined by 7 degrees to the plane of Earth's orbit (the ecliptic), the largest of all
eight known solar planets.[106] As a result, transits of Mercury across the face of the Sun can only
occur when the planet is crossing the plane of the ecliptic at the time it lies between Earth and the
Sun, which is in May or November. This occurs about every seven years on average.[107]

Mercury's axial tilt is almost zero,[108] with the best measured value as low as 0.027 degrees.[109]
This is significantly smaller than that of Jupiter, which has the second smallest axial tilt of all
planets at 3.1 degrees. This means that to an observer at Mercury's poles, the center of the Sun
never rises more than 2.1 arcminutes above the horizon.[109]

At certain points on Mercury's surface, an observer would be able to see the Sun peek up a little
more than two-thirds of the way over the horizon, then reverse and set before rising again, all
within the same Mercurian day.[c] This is because approximately four Earth days before
perihelion, Mercury's angular orbital velocity equals its angular rotational velocity so that the
Sun's apparent motion ceases; closer to perihelion, Mercury's angular orbital velocity then
exceeds the angular rotational velocity. Thus, to a hypothetical observer on Mercury, the Sun
appears to move in a retrograde direction. Four Earth days after perihelion, the Sun's normal
apparent motion resumes.[29] A similar effect would have occurred if Mercury had been in
synchronous rotation: the alternating gain and loss of rotation over revolution would have caused
a libration of 23.65° in longitude.[110]

For the same reason, there are two points on Mercury's equator, 180 degrees apart in longitude, at
either of which, around perihelion in alternate Mercurian years (once a Mercurian day), the Sun
passes overhead, then reverses its apparent motion and passes overhead again, then reverses a
second time and passes overhead a third time, taking a total of about 16 Earth-days for this entire
process. In the other alternate Mercurian years, the same thing happens at the other of these two
points. The amplitude of the retrograde motion is small, so the overall effect is that, for two or
three weeks, the Sun is almost stationary overhead, and is at its most brilliant because Mercury is
at perihelion, its closest to the Sun. This prolonged exposure to the Sun at its brightest makes
these two points the hottest places on Mercury. Maximum temperature occurs when the Sun is at
an angle of about 25 degrees past noon due to diurnal temperature lag, at 0.4 Mercury days and
0.8 Mercury years past sunrise.[111] Conversely, there are two other points on the equator, 90
degrees of longitude apart from the first ones, where the Sun passes overhead only when the
planet is at aphelion in alternate years, when the apparent motion of the Sun in Mercury's sky is
relatively rapid. These points, which are the ones on the equator where the apparent retrograde
motion of the Sun happens when it is crossing the horizon as described in the preceding
paragraph, receive much less solar heat than the first ones described above.[112]

Mercury attains inferior conjunction (nearest approach to Earth) every 116 Earth days on
average,[3] but this interval can range from 105 days to 129 days due to the planet's eccentric
orbit. Mercury can come as near as 82,200,000 kilometres (0.549 astronomical units; 51.1 million
miles) to Earth, and that is slowly declining: The next approach to within 82,100,000 km
(51.0 million miles) is in 2679, and to within 82,000,000 km (51 million miles) in 4487, but it will
not be closer to Earth than 80,000,000 km (50 million miles) until 28,622.[113] Its period of
retrograde motion as seen from Earth can vary from 8 to 15 days on either side of inferior
conjunction. This large range arises from the planet's high orbital eccentricity.[29] Essentially
:
 because Mercury is closest to the Sun, when taking an average over time, Mercury is the closest
planet to the Earth,[114] and—in that measure—it is the closest planet to each of the other planets
in the Solar System.[115][116][117][d]

Longitude convention

The longitude convention for Mercury puts the zero of longitude at one of the two hottest points
on the surface, as described above. However, when this area was first visited, by Mariner 10, this
zero meridian was in darkness, so it was impossible to select a feature on the surface to define the
exact position of the meridian. Therefore, a small crater further west was chosen, called Hun Kal,
which provides the exact reference point for measuring longitude.[118][119] The center of Hun Kal
defines the 20° west meridian. A 1970 International Astronomical Union resolution suggests that
longitudes be measured positively in the westerly direction on Mercury.[120] The two hottest
places on the equator are therefore at longitudes 0° W and 180° W, and the coolest points on the
equator are at longitudes 90° W and 270° W. However, the MESSENGER project uses an east-
positive convention.[121]

Spin-orbit resonance
For many years it was thought that Mercury was
synchronously tidally locked with the Sun, rotating once for
each orbit and always keeping the same face directed towards
the Sun, in the same way that the same side of the Moon
always faces Earth. Radar observations in 1965 proved that
the planet has a 3:2 spin-orbit resonance, rotating three times
for every two revolutions around the Sun. The eccentricity of
Mercury's orbit makes this resonance stable—at perihelion,
when the solar tide is strongest, the Sun is nearly still in
Mercury's sky.[122]

The rare 3:2 resonant tidal locking is stabilized by the

After one orbit, Mercury has
variance of the tidal force along Mercury's eccentric orbit,
rotated 1.5 times, so after two
acting on a permanent dipole component of Mercury's mass
complete orbits the same
distribution.[123] In a circular orbit there is no such variance, hemisphere is again illuminated.
so the only resonance stabilized in such an orbit is at 1:1 (e.g.,
Earth–Moon), when the tidal force, stretching a body along
the "center-body" line, exerts a torque that aligns the body's axis of least inertia (the "longest"
axis, and the axis of the aforementioned dipole) to point always at the center. However, with
noticeable eccentricity, like that of Mercury's orbit, the tidal force has a maximum at perihelion
and therefore stabilizes resonances, like 3:2, ensuring that the planet points its axis of least inertia
roughly at the Sun when passing through perihelion.[123]
:
 The original reason astronomers thought it was synchronously locked was that, whenever
Mercury was best placed for observation, it was always nearly at the same point in its 3:2
resonance, hence showing the same face. This is because, coincidentally, Mercury's rotation
period is almost exactly half of its synodic period with respect to Earth. Due to Mercury's 3:2 spin-
orbit resonance, a solar day lasts about 176 Earth days.[29] A sidereal day (the period of rotation)
lasts about 58.7 Earth days.[29]

Simulations indicate that the orbital eccentricity of Mercury varies chaotically from nearly zero
(circular) to more than 0.45 over millions of years due to perturbations from the other
planets.[29][124] This was thought to explain Mercury's 3:2 spin-orbit resonance (rather than the
more usual 1:1), because this state is more likely to arise during a period of high eccentricity.[125]
However, accurate modeling based on a realistic model of tidal response has demonstrated that
Mercury was captured into the 3:2 spin-orbit state at a very early stage of its history, within 20
(more likely, 10) million years after its formation.[126]

Numerical simulations show that a future secular orbital resonant perihelion interaction with
Jupiter may cause the eccentricity of Mercury's orbit to increase to the point where there is a 1%
chance that the planet will collide with Venus within the next five billion years.[127][128]

Advance of perihelion
In 1859, the French mathematician and astronomer Urbain Le Verrier reported that the slow
precession of Mercury's orbit around the Sun could not be completely explained by Newtonian
mechanics and perturbations by the known planets. He suggested, among possible explanations,
that another planet (or perhaps instead a series of smaller 'corpuscules') might exist in an orbit
even closer to the Sun than that of Mercury, to account for this perturbation.[129] (Other
explanations considered included a slight oblateness of the Sun.) The success of the search for
Neptune based on its perturbations of the orbit of Uranus led astronomers to place faith in this
possible explanation, and the hypothetical planet was named Vulcan, but no such planet was ever
found.[130]

The perihelion precession of Mercury is 5,600 arcseconds (1.5556°) per century relative to Earth,
or 574.10±0.65 arcseconds per century[131] relative to the inertial ICRF. Newtonian mechanics,
taking into account all the effects from the other planets, predicts a precession of 5,557 arcseconds
(1.5436°) per century.[131] In the early 20th century, Albert Einstein's general theory of relativity
provided the explanation for the observed precession, by formalizing gravitation as being
mediated by the curvature of spacetime. The effect is small: just 42.98 arcseconds per century for
Mercury; it therefore requires a little over twelve million orbits for a full excess turn. Similar, but
much smaller, effects exist for other Solar System bodies: 8.62 arcseconds per century for Venus,
3.84 for Earth, 1.35 for Mars, and 10.05 for 1566 Icarus.[132][133]

Habitability
:
 There may be scientific support, based on studies reported in March 2020, for considering that
parts of the planet Mercury may have been habitable, and perhaps that life forms, albeit likely
primitive microorganisms, may have existed on the planet.[134][135]

Observation
Mercury's apparent magnitude is calculated to vary between
−2.48 (brighter than Sirius) around superior conjunction and
+7.25 (below the limit of naked-eye visibility) around inferior
conjunction.[14] The mean apparent magnitude is 0.23 while
the standard deviation of 1.78 is the largest of any planet. The
mean apparent magnitude at superior conjunction is −1.89
while that at inferior conjunction is +5.93.[14] Observation of
Mercury is complicated by its proximity to the Sun, as it is
lost in the Sun's glare for much of the time. Mercury can be
observed for only a brief period during either morning or
evening twilight.[136]

Mercury can, like several other planets and the brightest

stars, be seen during a total solar eclipse.[137]

Like the Moon and Venus, Mercury exhibits phases as seen

from Earth. It is "new" at inferior conjunction and "full" at
superior conjunction. The planet is rendered invisible from
Earth on both of these occasions because of its being Image mosaic by Mariner 10, 1974
obscured by the Sun,[136] except its new phase during a
transit.

Mercury is technically brightest as seen from Earth when it is at a full phase. Although Mercury is
farthest from Earth when it is full, the greater illuminated area that is visible and the opposition
brightness surge more than compensates for the distance.[138] The opposite is true for Venus,
which appears brightest when it is a crescent, because it is much closer to Earth than when
gibbous.[138][139]

Nonetheless, the brightest (full phase) appearance of Mercury is an essentially impossible time for
practical observation, because of the extreme proximity of the Sun. Mercury is best observed at
the first and last quarter, although they are phases of lesser brightness. The first and last quarter
phases occur at greatest elongation east and west of the Sun, respectively. At both of these times
Mercury's separation from the Sun ranges anywhere from 17.9° at perihelion to 27.8° at
aphelion.[140][141] At greatest western elongation, Mercury rises at its earliest before sunrise, and
at greatest eastern elongation, it sets at its latest after sunset.[142]

Mercury is more often and easily visible from the Southern Hemisphere than from the Northern.
This is because Mercury's maximum western elongation occurs only during early autumn in the
Southern Hemisphere, whereas its greatest eastern elongation happens only during late winter in
:
 the Southern
Hemisphere. [142] In both
of these cases, the angle
at which the planet's orbit
intersects the horizon is
maximized, allowing it to
rise several hours before
sunrise in the former
instance and not set until
False-color map showing the
several hours after False-color image of Carnegie
maximum temperatures of the sundown in the latter Rupes, a tectonic landform—high
north polar region from southern mid- terrain (red); low (blue).
latitudes, such as
Argentina and South
Africa.[142]

An alternate method for viewing Mercury involves observing the planet during daylight hours
when conditions are clear, ideally when it is at its greatest elongation. This allows the planet to be
found easily, even when using telescopes with 8 cm (3.1 in) apertures. However, great care must
be taken to obstruct the Sun from sight because of the extreme risk for eye damage.[143] This
method bypasses the limitation of twilight observing when the ecliptic is located at a low elevation
(e.g. on autumn evenings).

Ground-based telescope observations of Mercury reveal only an illuminated partial disk with
limited detail. The first of two spacecraft to visit the planet was Mariner 10, which mapped about
45% of its surface from 1974 to 1975. The second is the MESSENGER spacecraft, which after three
Mercury flybys between 2008 and 2009, attained orbit around Mercury on March 17, 2011,[144] to
study and map the rest of the planet.[145]

The Hubble Space Telescope cannot observe Mercury at all, due to safety procedures that prevent
its pointing too close to the Sun.[146]

Because the shift of 0.15 revolutions in a year makes up a seven-year cycle (0.15 × 7 ≈ 1.0), in the
seventh year Mercury follows almost exactly (earlier by 7 days) the sequence of phenomena it
showed seven years before.[140]

Observation history

Ancient astronomers
The earliest known recorded observations of Mercury are from the Mul.Apin tablets. These
observations were most likely made by an Assyrian astronomer around the 14th century BC.[147]
The cuneiform name used to designate Mercury on the Mul.Apin tablets is transcribed as
:
 Udu.Idim.Gu\u4.Ud ("the jumping planet").[e][148] Babylonian records of Mercury date back to
the 1st millennium BC. The Babylonians called the planet Nabu after the messenger to the gods in
their mythology.[149]

The Greco-Egyptian[150] astronomer Ptolemy wrote about the possibility of planetary transits
across the face of the Sun in his work Planetary Hypotheses.
He suggested that no transits had been observed either
because planets such as Mercury were too small to see, or
because the transits were too infrequent.[151]

In ancient China,
Mercury was known as
"the Hour Star" (Chen-
xing ). It was
associated with the
Mercury, from Liber astronomiae,
direction north and the
1550
phase of water in the Five
Phases system of
metaphysics. [152] Modern Chinese, Korean, Japanese and
Vietnamese cultures refer to the planet literally as the "water
star" ( ), based on the Five elements.[153][154][155] Hindu
mythology used the name Budha for Mercury, and this god
Ibn al-Shatir's model for the was thought to preside over Wednesday.[156] The god Odin
appearances of Mercury, showing (or Woden) of Germanic paganism was associated with the
the multiplication of epicycles
using the Tusi couple, thus
planet Mercury and Wednesday.[157] The Maya may have
eliminating the Ptolemaic
represented Mercury as an owl (or possibly four owls; two for
eccentrics and equant. the morning aspect and two for the evening) that served as a
messenger to the underworld.[158]

In medieval Islamic astronomy, the Andalusian astronomer Abū Ishāq Ibrāhīm al-Zarqālī in the
11th century described the deferent of Mercury's geocentric orbit as being oval, like an egg or a
pignon, although this insight did not influence his astronomical theory or his astronomical
calculations.[159][160] In the 12th century, Ibn Bajjah observed "two planets as black spots on the
face of the Sun", which was later suggested as the transit of Mercury and/or Venus by the
Maragha astronomer Qotb al-Din Shirazi in the 13th century.[161] (Note that most such medieval
reports of transits were later taken as observations of sunspots.[162])

In India, the Kerala school astronomer Nilakantha Somayaji in the 15th century developed a
partially heliocentric planetary model in which Mercury orbits the Sun, which in turn orbits
Earth, similar to the Tychonic system later proposed by Tycho Brahe in the late 16th century.[163]

Ground-based telescopic research

:
 The first telescopic observations of Mercury were made by Galileo in the early 17th century.
Although he observed phases when he looked at Venus, his telescope was not powerful enough to
see the phases of Mercury. In 1631, Pierre Gassendi made the
first telescopic observations of the transit of a planet across
the Sun when he saw a transit of Mercury predicted by
Johannes Kepler. In 1639, Giovanni Zupi used a telescope to
discover that the planet had orbital phases similar to Venus
and the Moon. The observation demonstrated conclusively
that Mercury orbited around the Sun.[29]

A rare event in astronomy is the passage of one planet in front

of another (occultation), as seen from Earth. Mercury and
Venus occult each other every few centuries, and the event of
May 28, 1737 is the only one historically observed, having
been seen by John Bevis at the Royal Greenwich
Observatory.[164] The next occultation of Mercury by Venus Transit of Mercury. Mercury is
will be on December 3, 2133.[165] visible as a black dot below and to
the left of center. The dark area
The difficulties inherent in observing Mercury mean that it above the center of the solar disk
has been far less studied than the other planets. In 1800, is a sunspot.
Johann Schröter made observations of surface features,
claiming to have observed 20-kilometre-high (12 mi)
mountains. Friedrich Bessel used Schröter's drawings to
erroneously estimate the rotation period as 24 hours and an
axial tilt of 70°.[166] In the 1880s, Giovanni Schiaparelli
mapped the planet more accurately, and suggested that
Mercury's rotational period was 88 days, the same as its
orbital period due to tidal locking.[167] This phenomenon is
known as synchronous rotation. The effort to map the surface Elongation is the angle between
of Mercury was continued by Eugenios Antoniadi, who the Sun and the planet, with Earth
published a book in 1934 that included both maps and his as the reference point. Mercury
own observations.[96] Many of the planet's surface features, appears close to the Sun.
particularly the albedo features, take their names from
Antoniadi's map.[168]

In June 1962, Soviet scientists at the Institute of Radio-engineering and Electronics of the USSR
Academy of Sciences, led by Vladimir Kotelnikov, became the first to bounce a radar signal off
Mercury and receive it, starting radar observations of the planet.[169][170][171] Three years later,
radar observations by Americans Gordon H. Pettengill and Rolf B. Dyce, using the 300-meter
Arecibo radio telescope in Puerto Rico, showed conclusively that the planet's rotational period
was about 59 days.[172][173] The theory that Mercury's rotation was synchronous had become
widely held, and it was a surprise to astronomers when these radio observations were announced.
If Mercury were tidally locked, its dark face would be extremely cold, but measurements of radio
emission revealed that it was much hotter than expected. Astronomers were reluctant to drop the
synchronous rotation theory and proposed alternative mechanisms such as powerful heat-
distributing winds to explain the observations.[174]
:
 Italian astronomer Giuseppe Colombo noted that the rotation
value was about two-thirds of Mercury's orbital period, and
proposed that the planet's orbital and rotational periods were
locked into a 3:2 rather than a 1:1 resonance.[175] Data from
Mariner 10 subsequently confirmed this view.[176] This
means that Schiaparelli's and Antoniadi's maps were not
"wrong". Instead, the astronomers saw the same features
Water ice (yellow) at Mercury's during every second orbit and recorded them, but disregarded
north polar region those seen in the meantime, when Mercury's other face was
toward the Sun, because the orbital geometry meant that
these observations were made under poor viewing
conditions.[166]

Ground-based optical observations did not shed much further light on Mercury, but radio
astronomers using interferometry at microwave wavelengths, a technique that enables removal of
the solar radiation, were able to discern physical and chemical characteristics of the subsurface
layers to a depth of several meters.[177][178] Not until the first space probe flew past Mercury did
many of its most fundamental morphological properties become known. Moreover, recent
technological advances have led to improved ground-based observations. In 2000, high-
resolution lucky imaging observations were conducted by the Mount Wilson Observatory 1.5
meter Hale telescope. They provided the first views that resolved surface features on the parts of
Mercury that were not imaged in the Mariner 10 mission.[179] Most of the planet has been
mapped by the Arecibo radar telescope, with 5 km (3.1 mi) resolution, including polar deposits in
shadowed craters of what may be water ice.[180]

Research with space probes

Reaching Mercury from
Earth poses significant
technical challenges,
because it orbits so much
closer to the Sun than
Earth. A Mercury-bound
spacecraft launched from Mercury transiting the Sun as
Earth must travel over viewed by the Mars rover Curiosity
MESSENGER being prepared for
91 million kilometres (June 3, 2014).[181]
launch
(57 million miles) into
the Sun's gravitational
potential well. Mercury has an orbital speed of 47.4 km/s
(29.5 mi/s), whereas Earth's orbital speed is 29.8 km/s (18.5 mi/s).[106] Therefore, the spacecraft
must make a large change in velocity (delta-v) to get to Mercury and then enter orbit,[182] as
compared to the delta-v required for, say, Mars planetary missions.
:
 The potential energy liberated by moving down the Sun's potential well becomes kinetic energy,
requiring a delta-v change to do anything other than pass by Mercury. Some portion of this delta-
v budget can be provided from a gravity assist during one or more fly-bys of Venus.[183] To land
safely or enter a stable orbit the spacecraft would rely entirely on rocket motors. Aerobraking is
ruled out because Mercury has a negligible atmosphere. A trip to Mercury requires more rocket
fuel than that required to escape the Solar System completely. As a result, only three space probes
have visited it so far.[184] A proposed alternative approach would use a solar sail to attain a
Mercury-synchronous orbit around the Sun.[185]

Mariner 10

The first spacecraft to visit Mercury was NASA's Mariner 10

(1974–1975).[23] The spacecraft used the gravity of Venus to
adjust its orbital velocity so that it could approach Mercury,
making it both the first spacecraft to use this gravitational
"slingshot" effect and the first NASA mission to visit multiple
planets.[186] Mariner 10 provided the first close-up images of
Mercury's surface, which immediately showed its heavily
cratered nature, and revealed many other types of geological
features, such as the giant scarps that were later ascribed to Mariner 10, the first probe to visit
the effect of the planet shrinking slightly as its iron core Mercury
cools.[187] Unfortunately, the same face of the planet was lit at
each of Mariner 10 's close approaches. This made close
observation of both sides of the planet impossible,[188] and resulted in the mapping of less than
45% of the planet's surface.[189]

The spacecraft made three close approaches to Mercury, the closest of which took it to within
327 km (203 mi) of the surface.[190] At the first close approach, instruments detected a magnetic
field, to the great surprise of planetary geologists—Mercury's rotation was expected to be much
too slow to generate a significant dynamo effect. The second close approach was primarily used
for imaging, but at the third approach, extensive magnetic data were obtained. The data revealed
that the planet's magnetic field is much like Earth's, which deflects the solar wind around the
planet. For many years after the Mariner 10 encounters, the origin of Mercury's magnetic field
remained the subject of several competing theories.[191][192]

On March 24, 1975, just eight days after its final close approach, Mariner 10 ran out of fuel.
Because its orbit could no longer be accurately controlled, mission controllers instructed the
probe to shut down.[193] Mariner 10 is thought to be still orbiting the Sun, passing close to
Mercury every few months.[194]

MESSENGER

A second NASA mission to Mercury, named MESSENGER (MErcury Surface, Space

ENvironment, GEochemistry, and Ranging), was launched on August 3, 2004. It made a fly-by of
Earth in August 2005, and of Venus in October 2006 and June 2007 to place it onto the correct
:
 trajectory to reach an orbit around Mercury.[195] A first fly-by of Mercury occurred on January 14,
2008, a second on October 6, 2008,[196] and a third on September 29, 2009.[197] Most of the
hemisphere not imaged by Mariner 10 was mapped during these fly-bys. The probe successfully
entered an elliptical orbit around the planet on March 18,
2011. The first orbital image of Mercury was obtained on
March 29, 2011. The probe finished a one-year mapping
mission,[196] and then entered a one-year extended mission
into 2013. In addition to continued observations and
mapping of Mercury, MESSENGER observed the 2012 solar
maximum.[198]

The mission was designed to clear up six key issues:

Mercury's high density, its geological history, the nature of its
magnetic field, the structure of its core, whether it has ice at
its poles, and where its tenuous atmosphere comes from. To
this end, the probe carried imaging devices that gathered
much-higher-resolution images of much more of Mercury
than Mariner 10, assorted spectrometers to determine Estimated details of the impact of
abundances of elements in the crust, and magnetometers and MESSENGER on April 30, 2015
devices to measure velocities of charged particles.
Measurements of changes in the probe's orbital velocity were
expected to be used to infer details of the planet's interior structure.[199] MESSENGER's final
maneuver was on April 24, 2015, and it crashed into Mercury's surface on April 30,
2015.[200][201][202] The spacecraft's impact with Mercury occurred near 3:26 PM EDT on April
30, 2015, leaving a crater estimated to be 16 m (52 ft) in diameter.[203]

BepiColombo

The European Space Agency and the Japanese Space Agency developed and launched a joint
mission called BepiColombo, which will orbit Mercury with two probes: one to map the planet
and the other to study its magnetosphere.[204] Launched on October 20, 2018, BepiColombo is
expected to reach Mercury in 2025.[205] It will release a magnetometer probe into an elliptical
orbit, then chemical rockets will fire to deposit the mapper probe into a circular orbit. Both probes
will operate for one terrestrial year.[204] The mapper probe carries an array of spectrometers
similar to those on MESSENGER, and will study the planet at many different wavelengths
including infrared, ultraviolet, X-ray and gamma ray.[206] BepiColombo conducted the first of its
six planned Mercury flybys on October 1, 2021.[207]

Comparison
:
 Size comparison with other Solar System objects

Mercury, Earth Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars Back row: Mars, Mercury
Front: Moon, Pluto,
Haumea

See also
Outline of Mercury (planet)
Budha, Hinduism's name for the planet and the god Mercury
Colonization of Mercury
Mercury in astrology
Mercury in fiction

Notes
a. In astronomy, the words "rotation" and "revolution" have different meanings. "Rotation" is the
turning of a body about an axis that passes through the body, as in "Earth rotates once a day."
"Revolution" is motion around a centre that is external to the body, usually in orbit, as in "Earth
takes a year for each revolution around the Sun." The verbs "rotate" and "revolve" mean doing
rotation and revolution, respectively.
b. Pluto was considered a planet from its discovery in 1930 to 2006, but after that it has been
reclassified as a dwarf planet. Pluto's orbital eccentricity is greater than Mercury's. Pluto is
also smaller than Mercury, but was thought to be larger until 1976.
c. The Sun's total angular displacement during its apparent retrograde motion as seen from the
surface of Mercury is ~1.23°, while the Sun's angular diameter when the apparent retrograde
motion begins and ends is ~1.71°, increasing to ~1.73° at perihelion (midway through the
retrograde motion).
d. It is important to be clear about the meaning of 'closeness'. In the astronomical literature, the
term 'closest planets' often means 'the two planets that approach each other most closely'. In
other words, the orbits of the two planets approach each other most closely. However, this
does not mean that the two planets are closest over time. For example, essentially because
Mercury is closer to the Sun than Venus, Mercury spends more time in proximity to Earth; it
could, therefore, be said that Mercury is the planet that is 'closest to Earth when averaged
over time'. However, using this time-average definition of 'closeness'—as noted above—it
turns out that Mercury is the closest planet to all other planets in the solar system. For that
reason, arguably, the proximity-definition is not particularly helpful. An episode of the BBC
Radio 4 programme 'More or Less' explains the different notions of proximity well.[114]
:
 e. Some sources precede the cuneiform transcription with "MUL". "MUL" is a cuneiform sign that
was used in the Sumerian language to designate a star or planet, but it is not considered part
of the actual name. The "4" is a reference number in the Sumero–Akkadian transliteration
system to designate which of several syllables a certain cuneiform sign is most likely
designating.

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External links
Atlas of Mercury (https://history.nasa.gov/SP-423/sp423.htm). NASA. 1978. SP-423.
Mercury nomenclature (http://planetarynames.wr.usgs.gov/Page/MERCURY/target) and map
with feature names (https://web.archive.org/web/20130217190331/http://planetarynames.wr.u
sgs.gov/Page/mercuryQuadMap) from the USGS/IAU Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature
Equirectangular map of Mercury (http://messenger-act.actgate.com/msgr_public_released/rea
ct_quickmap.html) by Applied Coherent Technology Corp
3D globe of Mercury (https://www.google.com/maps/space/mercury/) by Google
Mercury (http://solarviews.com/eng/mercury.htm) at Solarviews.com
Mercury (http://www.astronomycast.com/2007/08/episode-49-mercury/) by Astronomy Cast
MESSENGER mission web site (http://messenger.jhuapl.edu/)
BepiColombo mission web site (http://www.esa.int/bepicolombo)
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